Simple explanation
What is cohesion? Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical links that connect sentences and parts of a text. A strong C1 text is not simply a sequence of correct sentences. Readers should also be able to see how one idea relates to another. Reference and substitution are important cohesive devices because they reduce unnecessary repetition while preserving clear connections between ideas. What is reference? Reference occurs when an expression depends on another person, object, idea, or situation for its interpretation. In “Laura submitted the report. She sent it yesterday,” she refers to Laura and it refers to the report. The reader understands the pronouns by identifying their referents. Anaphoric and cataphoric reference Anaphoric reference points back to information that has already been mentioned: “I bought a new laptop. It is extremely light.” Cataphoric reference points forward to information that appears later: “Although he would never admit it, Daniel was worried.” Anaphoric reference is much more common, but cataphoric reference can be used at advanced levels for emphasis and information control. Personal reference Personal reference includes pronouns and possessive forms such as he, she, it, they, him, her, them, his, and their. At C1 level, grammatical agreement is only part of the problem. The referent must also be unmistakable. If two people could logically be referred to by the same pronoun, the sentence may need to be rewritten. Demonstrative reference This, that, these, and those can refer to nouns, situations, or complete propositions. In formal writing, however, a bare this can sometimes be vague. Expressions such as this result, this argument, this assumption, or this change are often more precise because they tell the reader exactly what aspect of the previous sentence is being referred to. Comparative reference Words such as same, similar, different, other, another, more, less, and such can also create cohesive reference. In “The first experiment produced inconsistent results. A similar pattern appeared in the second study,” a similar pattern explicitly connects the second finding to the first. This type of reference is especially useful in analytical and academic writing. What is substitution? Substitution occurs when one linguistic item replaces another item that is already recoverable from context. Instead of repeating a noun phrase, verb phrase, or full clause, English can use forms such as one/ones, do, so, and not. Substitution makes discourse more economical while keeping the omitted information recoverable. Reference versus substitution Reference and substitution may look similar, but they are not the same. In “I bought a charger. It works well,” it refers to the same charger. In “I need a charger. Do you have one?” one replaces the noun phrase a charger and refers to another member of the same category. Reference identifies a referent; substitution replaces a linguistic expression. Nominal substitution with one and ones One usually substitutes for a singular countable noun, while ones substitutes for a plural countable noun. They can appear with determiners, adjectives, or postmodifying phrases, as in the cheaper one, another one, or the ones on the shelf. They are especially useful when the noun is obvious from context and repeating it would sound heavy. Verbal substitution with do Do and its forms does and did can substitute for a previously mentioned verb phrase. In “Maria works harder than her colleagues do,” do substitutes for the relevant meaning of work hard. This is common in comparisons, contrasts, and short responses. Clausal substitution with so and not So can substitute for a positive proposition and not for a negative one. These forms commonly occur after verbs such as think, believe, suppose, expect, hope, appear, and seem. “Will the plan work? I think so” means “I think the plan will work.” “Is she going to resign? I hope not” stands for a negative version of the proposition. Cohesion must not reduce clarity Advanced learners sometimes try to avoid repetition at all costs. This can produce excessive pronouns and unclear substitutions. Effective C1 writing uses cohesive devices selectively. Repeating a noun is often better than using a pronoun or substitute that forces the reader to guess what it refers to.
Grammar formula
Personal reference
referent + pronounThe company changed its policy because it had received several complaints.
Demonstrative reference
previous idea + this/that + optional nounSales fell sharply in May. This decline continued in June.
Nominal substitution singular
determiner/adjective + oneI don't want the large suitcase; I'll take the smaller one.
Nominal substitution plural
determiner/adjective + onesI prefer the ones near the window.
Verbal substitution
subject + do/does/didShe understands the issue better than I do.
Positive clausal substitution
reporting verb + soWill prices fall? Analysts believe so.
Negative clausal substitution
reporting verb + notWill the meeting be cancelled? I hope not.
Core rules
- 1
Keep every pronoun reference clear
A pronoun should have a referent that the reader can identify without unnecessary effort. If two nouns could reasonably be the referent, repeat the noun or restructure the sentence.
- 2
Use personal reference for identifiable referents
Pronouns such as he, she, it, and they normally refer to already identifiable people, objects, or concepts. Do not assume that a pronoun will automatically be interpreted as referring to the nearest noun.
- 3
Use this plus a noun when precision matters
A bare this may refer to an entire previous proposition, but forms such as this result, this decision, or this limitation are often clearer in formal writing.
- 4
Use one for singular countable nouns
One can replace a singular countable noun when its meaning is clear from context: I don't like this chair. I'll take the other one.
- 5
Use ones for plural countable nouns
Ones can replace plural countable nouns: These shoes are uncomfortable. I prefer the ones by the door.
- 6
Do not confuse it with one
It normally refers to the same specific object already mentioned. One typically refers to a different member of the same category.
- 7
Use do, does, or did for recoverable verb phrases
Verbal substitution with do works when the omitted verb phrase is clear from context and the tense and subject are grammatically compatible.
- 8
Use so for a positive clause
After suitable reporting or mental-state verbs, so can stand for a positive proposition: I think so, I suppose so, I expect so.
- 9
Use not for a negative clause in compatible structures
Not can stand for a negative proposition in expressions such as I hope not, I suppose not, and apparently not.
- 10
Prefer clarity over elegant substitution
If a substitute form creates ambiguity, repeat the relevant noun or phrase. Cohesion is effective only when the reader can reconstruct the intended meaning immediately.
Useful examples
The committee rejected the first proposal because it failed to address the main financial risks.
The committee rejected the first proposal because that proposal did not deal with the main financial risks.
It refers back to the first proposal.
The company reduced its prices in July. This decision led to a significant increase in sales.
The company cut its prices in July, and that decision caused sales to rise significantly.
This decision creates a precise demonstrative reference to the previous action.
Researchers found no significant difference in the first trial. A similar result was reported in the second.
The first trial showed no significant difference, and the second produced a comparable result.
A similar result creates comparative reference between the two findings.
I don't like the black jacket, but the grey one looks much better.
I dislike the black jacket, but the grey jacket looks much better.
One substitutes for jacket and refers to a different jacket.
The reports submitted yesterday were more detailed than the ones we received last week.
Yesterday's reports contained more detail than the reports we received last week.
The ones substitutes for reports in the plural.
Some participants preferred the original design, whereas others chose the revised one.
Some participants preferred the original design, while others chose the revised design.
The revised one substitutes for the revised design.
James works considerably faster than most people in his department do.
James works considerably faster than most people in his department work.
Do substitutes for the repeated verb phrase.
I didn't expect the negotiations to succeed, but everyone else did.
I did not expect the negotiations to succeed, but everyone else expected them to succeed.
Did substitutes for the earlier verb phrase.
Do you think the new policy will reduce costs? I believe so.
Do you think the new policy will reduce costs? Yes, I believe it will.
So substitutes for the full positive proposition.
Will the board approve the proposal? I hope so, but I'm not particularly confident.
I hope the board will approve the proposal, although I am not very confident that it will.
So avoids repeating the whole clause.
Is the problem likely to disappear on its own? Probably not.
The problem is probably not likely to disappear on its own.
Not substitutes for a negative proposition.
The first explanation is plausible, but the second one accounts for more of the available evidence.
The first explanation is plausible, but the second explanation accounts for more of the evidence.
The second one substitutes for the second explanation.
Several departments opposed the change. This resistance delayed implementation for nearly six months.
Several departments resisted the change, and that resistance delayed implementation for almost six months.
This resistance refers to the opposition expressed in the previous sentence.
I bought a new camera yesterday. It takes excellent photos even in low light.
I bought a new camera yesterday, and that same camera takes excellent photos in low-light conditions.
It refers to the exact same camera, so this is reference rather than nominal substitution.
Common mistakes
- ❌ I bought a new laptop, but one stopped working after two days. ✅ I bought a new laptop, but it stopped working after two days. The sentence refers to the same laptop. It is therefore required; one would normally refer to a different laptop of the same type.
- ❌ I don't like this shirt. I prefer it in the window. ✅ I don't like this shirt. I prefer the one in the window. The speaker means a different shirt, so one is needed rather than it.
- ❌ These chairs are uncomfortable. Let's use the one in the meeting room. ✅ These chairs are uncomfortable. Let's use the ones in the meeting room. If several chairs are intended, the plural substitute ones is required.
- ❌ Maria explained the problem to Anna because she was confused. ✅ Maria explained the problem to Anna because Anna was confused. She could refer to either Maria or Anna. Repeating the name removes the ambiguity.
- ❌ Sales declined sharply last quarter. This worried investors. ✅ Sales declined sharply last quarter. This decline worried investors. The original sentence is possible, but this decline is more precise and usually stronger in formal writing.
- ❌ The new model performs better than the old model does it. ✅ The new model performs better than the old model does. Does already substitutes for the relevant verb phrase, so adding it is unnecessary and ungrammatical.
- ❌ Do you think they will agree? I think it. ✅ Do you think they will agree? I think so. So can substitute for a complete positive proposition after think; it cannot perform that function here.
- ❌ Will she attend the conference? I hope no. ✅ Will she attend the conference? I hope not. Not is used to substitute for the negative proposition in this structure. No cannot perform the same grammatical function.
Learning tips
- When editing a C1 text, check every pronoun and ask whether its referent is immediately clear.
- In academic writing, this plus a noun is often more precise than a bare this.
- Remember the core distinction: it usually means the same object, while one usually means another object of the same type.
- Use one and ones mainly with countable nouns.
- Use do, does, and did to avoid repeating long verb phrases, especially in comparisons.
- Use so and not only when the omitted proposition is easy to reconstruct from context.
- Do not use substitution mechanically; use it only when it improves fluency without reducing clarity.
- Controlled repetition is not poor style if it prevents ambiguity.
- At C1 level, review reference chains across an entire paragraph, not only within individual sentences.
Practise this topic
Interactive exercises for this topic are coming soon.
PlannedRelated grammar
Related dictionary words
Frequently asked questions
What is the main difference between reference and substitution?
Reference points to a person, thing, or idea, as with it or this. Substitution replaces a previously understood linguistic expression, as with one, do, or so.
When should I use it and when should I use one?
Use it when you mean the same specific object. Use one when you mean a different object of the same type. “I bought a laptop. It is fast.” refers to the same laptop; “I want a lighter one” refers to another laptop.
Can one replace an uncountable noun?
Usually not. One and ones mainly substitute for countable nouns. With uncountable nouns, another structure is normally needed.
Is a bare this wrong in academic writing?
No, but it can be vague. Forms such as this result, this argument, or this limitation are often clearer because they specify what part of the previous statement is being referred to.
Can do substitute for every verb phrase?
No. Do works only when the omitted verb phrase is clear from context and the grammatical structure allows it. With modal or auxiliary verbs, repeating the relevant auxiliary may be more natural.
Why do we say I think so instead of I think it?
So can substitute for a complete proposition after think. It usually refers to a specific noun or identifiable entity and cannot simply replace a whole proposition in this pattern.
Is repetition always a problem in C1 writing?
No. Avoiding unnecessary repetition is useful, but clarity is more important. If a pronoun or substitute makes the reference unclear, repeating the noun is often the better stylistic choice.
What is the difference between substitution and ellipsis?
In substitution, a visible form such as one or do replaces an earlier expression. In ellipsis, part of the structure is omitted completely because the missing information can be recovered from context.